Best-bet grain legumes (common bean) production technologies | Crop Management (Crop Varieties)
Description of the technology or innovation
Thenational agricultural research systems (NARS) of Ethiopia has been developing anumber of agricultural technologies with potential to increase yield manyfolds. In arid and semi-arid agricultural systems of Ethiopia, staple crops andgrain legumes (common bean) are the most important strategic crops for food andincome, respectively. Descriptions of best-bet production technologies of thesecrops are presented below. The rationale to justify the technologies as bestpractice is highlighted in terms of the importance and relevance in addressingclimate-induced problems. In addition, the geographical locations andbiophysical environments where the technology has been tested, proven andpromoted are explained.
Assessment/reflection on utilization, dissemination & scaling out or up approaches used
Description of the technology orinnovation
Thecommon bean, also known as haricot bean, is grown on an estimated 267,000 ha bynearly 2.4 million smallholder farmers in Ethiopia (CSA 2009). The majorproducing regions are Oromiya (mainly East Shewa, East Hararghe, West Hararghe,West Arsi, Arsi zones) and SNNPR (Wolaita, Sidama, Gedeo, Alaba, Dauro, Guraghezones). Early maturity, moderate drought tolerance and rotational value havemade the crop popular in farming systems in drought-prone lowland areas.Farmers increase their area of production in years when rains are delayed.Beans are better at escaping (short maturity period) drought than sorghum and,in some years, provide the only harvest in areas of the Rift Valley affected bydrought. Soil erosion is relatively low under a bean crop canopy, and the strawis stored as a high quality supplement to cereal fodder during the dry season.
In thepast three decades, the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) andregional research institutes have developed over thirty varieties across thevarious market classes (e.g. white bean, small red, large kidneys, etc.) forwider as well as specific adaptation to the different bean growingagro-ecologies of the country (EIAR, 2007). Detailed descriptions of some ofthe most selected common bean varieties for arid and semi-arid areas ofEthiopia are given in Table 1.9. The varieties are high yielding, and proven tobe adapted to a range of biotic and abiotic stresses. These varieties can begrown well in areas with a rainfall ranging from 350 mm to 700 mm over aproduction period of 70 to 100 days. The varieties are adapted to a wide rangeof soils that are well drained and sandy to sandy loam. Productivity of theimproved varieties with improved management practices ranges between 20 and 30quintals/ha (2.0 to 3.0 t/ha).
Thevarieties possess acceptable qualities for canning and domestic consumption. Inaddition to the small, white-seeded varieties, which have been traditionallyproduced for the export market, huge markets are also opening for small,red-seeded and other market-class varieties. White pea bean has become animportant export item in the country’s pulse exports. In 2008 for instance,Ethiopia exported about 75,000 t valued at about US$35.4 million.
Table1.9: Inventory of selected common bean varieties for scaling out in arid andsemi-arid ecologies
| Variety | Awash -1 (Ex-Rico-23 ) |
| Description | Released in 1990; growth habit-indeterminate bush; seed colour, white; flowering, 45–50 days; maturity, 95–100 days; grain yield, 2200–2500 kg/ha, seed rate, 90 kg/ha (raw planting) and 100–110 kg/ha (broadcasting), relatively tolerant to CBB and Halo blight, bean stem maggot |
| Acceptability and ease of adoption | Require no any additional resources and skills; highly accepted and being under production |
| Potential benefit/profitability | High yielder; export type |
| Sensitivity to climate variables | Susceptible to climate variability |
| Constraints to adoption | Seed source |
| Recommendation domain | CRV, areas and other areas with rain fall ranges from 350–700 mm |
| Variety | Awash Melka (Pan-182) |
| Description | Released in 1999; growth habit, indeterminate bush; seed colour, white; flowering date, 45–55 days; maturity date, 95– 100 days; 100 seed weight, 21 g; grain yield, 2200–2500 kg/ ha; relatively resistant to CBB, rust, anthracnose and bean stem maggot; the seed coat is not transparent |
| Acceptability and ease of adoption | Require no any additional resources and skills; accepted and being under production |
| Potential benefit/profitability | High yielder, for export market |
| Sensitivity to climate variables | Susceptible to climate variability |
| Constraints to adoption | Currently under question due to some emergence problem owing to seed coat characteristics |
| Recommendation domain | CRV and similar areas having rainfall more than 350 mm annually |
| Variety | Argane (AR04GY) |
| Description | Released in 2005; growth habit-bush type; flowering date, 55–60 days; maturity, 90–95 days; seed colour, white; 100 seed weight, 19 g; grain yield, 1900–2200 kg/ha; relatively tolerant to CBB and halo blight; canning type |
| Acceptability and ease of adoption | Require no any additional resources and skills |
| Potential benefit / profitability | Potential grain yielder compared to local |
| Sensitivity to climate variables | Susceptible to climate variability |
| Constraints to adoption | Lack of seed source |
| Recommendation domain | CRV and similar areas (350–1000 mm RF) |
| Variety | Dinknesh (XAN-310) |
| Description | Released in 2006; growth habit indeterminate bush; days to 50% flowering, 51–59 days; maturity, 82–102 days; plant height, 48 cm; 100 seed weight, 26 g; seed colour, red; grain yield (under research), 2500 kg/ha; seed rate, 90 kg/ha for row planting and 100–120 kg/ha for broadcasting; relatively tolerant to CBB and anthracnose, rust, hallo blight and ALS; food type bean variety |
| Acceptability and ease of adoption | Require no any additional resources and skills; accepted and being under popularisation |
| Potential benefit/profitability | Potentially high grain yielder |
| Sensitivity to climate variables | Susceptible to climate variability |
| Constraints to adoption | New variety |
| Recommendation domain | CRV and similar low land areas (400–1100 mm RF); altitude 1400–1850 metres above sea level. |
| Variety | Nasir (DICTA-105) |
| Description | Released in 2003; growth habit intermediate bush; days to 50% flowering, 50–55 days; maturity, 81–100 days; plant height, 48 cm; 100 seed weight, 24 g; seed colour, red; grain yield (under research), 2200–2500 kg/ha; seed rate- 90 kg/ha for row planting; 100–120 kg/ha for broadcasting; tolerant to CBB and anthracnose, rust, hallo blight and ALS; market and food type |
| Acceptability and ease of adoption | Require no any additional resources and skills; accepted and popularised |
| Potential benefit/profitability | Potential grain yielder than any variety of its type |
| Sensitivity to climate variables | Susceptible to climate variability |
| Constraints to adoption | Seed source |
| Recommendation domain | CRV and similar low land areas (400–1100 mm RF), altitude 1400–1850 metres above sea level |
| Variety | Dimtu (DOR-554) |
| Description | Released in 2003; growth habit- indeterminate bush; days to 50% flowering, 50–55 days, maturity, 81–100 days; plant height, 48 cm, 100 seed weight, 24 g; seed colour- red; grain yield (under research), 2000–2200 kg/ha; relatively tolerant to CBB and anthracnose, rust, hallo blight and ALS; seed rate, 90 kg/ha for row planting and 100–120 kg/ha for broadcasting; a food type maize |
| Acceptability and ease of adoption | Require no any additional resources and skills. Accepted and being under popularisation |
| Potential benefit/profitability | Potential grain yielder |
| Sensitivity to climate variables | Susceptible to climate variability |
| Constraints to adoption | New variety |
| Recommendation domain | CRV and similar low land areas (400–1100 mm RF), altitude 1400–1850metres above sea level |
| Variety | Deme (SUG-131) |
| Description | Released in 2006; growth habit determinate bush; days to 50% flowering, 45–55 days; maturity, 85–10 days; plant height, 45cm; 100 seed weight, 40 g; seed colour, speckled; grain yield under research, 2000–2200 kg/ha; relatively tolerant to CBB and anthracnose, rust, hallo blight and ALS; seed rate, 100 kg/ha for row planting and 100–120 kg/ha for broadcasting; food type |
| Acceptability and ease of adoption | Require no any additional resources and skills and accepted and being under popularisation especially in south west region of Ethiopia |
| Potential benefit/profitability | Potential grain yielder |
| Sensitivity to climate variables | Susceptible to climate variability |
| Constraints to adoption | Specific market for the variety |
| Recommendation domain | CRV and similar low land areas (400–1100 mm RF), altitude 1400-2000metres above sea level |
Scaling-up approaches
Thissection deals the dissemination activities that were carried out by EIARtogether with other partners, the critical factors for successful promotion andadoption of the technologies by end-users, and draws lessons useful in futurescaling out activities.
EIARlaunched extensive scaling out of the above described technologies during early2001. The main area of focus was the promotion of improved crop productiontechnological packages that have been developed to improve productivity andincome of smallholder farmers under rainfed farming conditions of the country,with the following major objectives:
1) Increase productivity, production andincome through scaling out of proven technologies; and hence, achieve foodsecurity and improve livelihood of the farming community
2) Increase marketability of agriculturalproducts through use of improved production, crop management practices,post-harvest handling and utilisation
3) Increase farmers’ access to improvedagricultural technologies
Steps in sequencing of scaling out
EAIRadapted an expansion of experience in scaling out proven technologies in thearid and semi-arid areas of the country. The approach focuses on sensitisingrural communities to increase the numbers of farmers drawn into the adoptionpathways for the technologies. This approach has been aimed at addressing theclimate related risks which are the principal constraints to crop production inthe areas. The following are key steps adopted in scaling out to reach theusers of the technologies.
Getting started with scaling out
Identification of best-bet technologies: In the interest of reaching more peoplewith readily available technologies, the institute launched the process byidentifying proven technologies with potential to improve productivity andaddress challenges of climate variability and change in the risk prone areas.
Partnership building: Partners from Bureau of Agriculture andRural Development, NGOs and seed enterprises were formed and Joint planning andimplementation of scaling-out activities launched through multi-stakeholder’sconsultations.
Stakeholder workshops: Workshops were organised in order toestablish linkage and share roles and responsibilities of the participatingstakeholders. Stakeholders (Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Developmentextension office, unions, farmers, local administrators, traders and NGOs) whocould contribute to the scaling out process were identified and contacted toorganise farmers, supply of inputs, and facilitate day to- day follow-ups andmarket opportunities.
Target group identification: After identifying the target areas,target groups were identified in each of the selected areas.
Sensitisation and awareness creation: Extension materials (productionguidelines) for each crop and management technologies were prepared anddistributed to stakeholders and beneficiaries. Dissemination of informationabout the technologies were conducted using mass media. Field days wereorganised in order for the information reach more stakeholders andbeneficiaries.
EIARorganised a series of practical trainings for stakeholders and identifiedbeneficiaries to orient them about the improved technological packages ofcrops, varieties and accompanying agronomic soil and water, and disease, andpest management practices, post-harvest handling /processing and marketing. Thetrainees included SMS, agricultural experts, development agents and farmers.
Thescaling out activities were carried out in the four major regions of thecountry: Oromiya, Amhara, Tigray and SNNP. In 2009/10, a total area of 3598 hahas been covered by scaling-out improved crop technologies in three regionsnamely Tigray, Oromiya, Amhara, and SNNP on 12027 households (Figure 1.12). Ingeneral, there is an increasing trend of scaling-out of improved technologiesboth in terms of area and the number of people (households) drawn in to theprogramme over years. In addition, scaling-out of proven technologies has beenreaching new areas (regions) of the country with the same agro-ecologicalniche.
Figure1.12: Amount of seed distributed and number of farmers reached by the scalingout activities implemented by EIAR in 2009/2010.
Post-scaling-out
Sustainingefforts and actions EAIR finds provision of technical support to be a usefulmechanism and process for sustaining of scaling-out activities in otherinstitutions. It has provided considerable technical support, capacity buildingand material inputs (seeds of different improved crop varieties) to differentresearch institutions, NGOs so that they continue expanding scaling outexperience. Overall, EAIR has stirred up great interest and was able to drawmany institutions in the country to scaling out and scaling-up activities ofproven technologies in new areas.
Therewere several critical factors for successful promotion and adoption of thetechnologies. Successful scaling out depends on many internal and externalfactors. Internal factors are those that are within the control of EAIR. Theefforts of EAIR were successful due to the fact that it focused on scaling out ofproven best bets that met the demands and needs of the farming community. Theeconomic viability and user friendliness of the technologies has contributed tothe success of the scaling out effort which has been demonstrated by visiblefinancial benefits by the adopters of the technologies. Secondly, the approachadopted was fully participatory, involving different stakeholders, particularlyfarmers. Thirdly, the relatively well skilled, better experienced and dedicatedresearch staff were involved helping to guide the adaptation and scaling outprocesses. Fourthly, the use of mass media and other communication materialshas enhanced the scaling out and significantly contributed to the success ofthe scaling out of the best bets.
Thereare also external or contextual factors that enhanced the scaling-out efforts.These are: conducive policy environment and improvements in nationalagricultural extension system, increased awareness of farmers on the importanceand profitability of improved technologies which changed the attitude andperceptions of farmers towards the technologies, the established farmers’cooperatives and unions, stakeholders’ active participation, and the support ofdonors.
Users of the technologies
Arid andsemi-arid parts of the country account for about 75% of the total land masswhich is dominated by smallholder farmers. In arid and semi-arid areas of thecountry, farmers do not usually produce sufficient food due to inadequaterainfall and occurrence of intermittent drought. The food insufficiency in turnexacerbates malnutrition in most households, particularly for children andwomen. The technologies were primarily targeted to this group of farmers toimprove their dietary conditions and support them generate cash income. Unionsand cooperatives as well as commercial farmers of the target areas were alsobeneficiaries of the scaling-out effort.
The mainoutcomes of the scaling-out interventions have been vivid in terms of thenumber of rural population in different parts of the country that were reachedwith the proven technologies, and the enhanced productivity of agriculturalcommodities and farmers income. Although a serious study on the impact ofscaling out has not been conducted, there is ample evidence showingimprovements in the living standard of the rural population.
Current situation and future scaling up
Thefollowing are the major challenges faced by EAIR while scaling-out proventechnologies in the arid and semi-arid agro-ecologies:
§ The high risk nature of semi-arid areasand farmers’ reliance on rainfall coupled with lack of reliable climateforecast information
§ Lack of seed and improved farmimplements due to limited technology multipliers and distributers, and theirlimited capacity in availing technologies in required quality, quantity andtime
§ Inadequate researchers’ understandingand skills in communication and scaling out
§ Lack of market information due to poorextension system • Limited access of farmers to credit
§ Lack of ready markets for excess producefrom using improved technologies Insufficient funding that limited theproduction and dissemination of communication products such as leaflets andbrochures and consequently limited number of farmers reached due to lack ofbudget exclusively allocated for scaling out
§ Poor natural resource base
In lightof the above challenges faced from past efforts in scaling out, and analysis ofthe outcomes and challenges, several recommendations are forwarded forconsideration for further scaling out.
Institutionsinvolved in technology generation should play active roles in scaling out oftheir technologies together with active partners. To ensure sustainable scalingout, they should mainstream scaling-up approaches. Policy provisions to designand implement measures within institutions to ensure that all programmes andprojects have strategies for uptake and promotion of technologies resultingfrom research activities should be in place. Mainstreaming of scaling-upapproaches into NARS need to be given attention to ensure that the technologiesgenerated from research are promoted and utilised by the user communities.
Currently,many developmental institutions are undertaking scaling out of technologies inan uncoordinated manner. More collaboration among partners, and harmonisationof approaches are required for effective scaling out in order to effectivelyaddress smallholders technological needs. In addition, researchers andextension staff of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development have verylimited understanding and skills in communication and scaling out. Hence, thereis a need for developing their capacity to enhance their understanding andskills through intensive professional development programme on knowledgemanagement and the science and practice of scaling out. In addition,researchers should train end-users (farmers, farmers groups and commercialfarmers), intermediate stakeholders, and extension workers to facilitate rapidadoption of improved technologies.
Farmersneed ready markets to sell excess produce gained as a result of adoption ofimproved agricultural technologies. Therefore, there is a critical need todevelop market information delivery system to help farmers produce what isdemanded in the market and enter negotiations with traders. Similarly, there isa strong need to link farmers with markets. Investment in rural financing isrequired to promote adoption and utilisation of proven technologies throughenhancing farmers’ access to credit. There is a need to revisit the currentinput delivery system through improving the capacity of technology multipliersand distributers in availing technologies in required quality, quantity andtime. Furthermore, the participation of private sector in promotion and servicedelivery to facilitate scaling out of technologies need to be encouraged.
Scaling-outthe already proven technology combination that is water harvesting with dripirrigation is important to alleviate water shortage and poor performance ofirrigation system and adopt climatic variability and change in arid andsemi-arid areas. Scaling out of community based integrated natural resourceactions are very much required to sustain production and productivity. In thepast, these have received very little attention. In pursuit of improving thecurrent situation, investment on promoting and scaling out of sustainablenatural resource management technologies become very critical.
Lessons learned: Towards greater impact
EIAR haslearned transferable lessons that can be extended, with confidence, to a largerscale or new areas where climatic risks are prevalent assuming that thebarriers to effective scaling out are addressed. The following are the majorlessons learned in getting technologies used by largest number of users:
§ Creating awareness among variousstakeholders about the usefulness of the improved technologies significantlycontributed to wider and successful adoption. Farmers are keen to participateon technology adoption that will fetch them good incomes. The technologies withhigh market demand are more preferred and widely adopted by smallholder farmersthan those with low market demand.
§ Among the technology dissemination ordiffusion methods EIAR has employed, farmer-to-farmer learning or transfer oftechnologies was found to be effective as farmers trust each other than theytrust external actors. Therefore, farmers research groups (FRGs) have beenimplemented as approach to make the learning and scaling-out processparticipatory. This has resulted in enhanced access and knowledge of farmersabout modern practices.
§ There is a strong need for alternativeoptions and availability of technologies at local level. This requires creatingof opportunity for entrepreneurs-agro-enterprises – small, and farm implementsand seed producers.
§ The importance of employing monitoringand evaluation (ME) exercises is one of the major lessons learned from pastscaling-out efforts. Because ME helps in assessing and analysing of theconstraints and opportunities of scaling out, and means to learn and correctmistakes along the way during scaling out.
§ The importance of partnership andmulti-disciplinary team approach, and active participation of stakeholders atall levels of the process from planning to implementation of scaling out isanother critical factor for successes on scaling out of technologies.
§ There is a need to translate climatedata into meaningful information that can build the confidence of stakeholders,and enable the realisation of the potentials of technologies promoted insupporting smallholder farmers to adapt to climate variability and change.
Economic Considerations
Considerations in the development anddissemination of the technology
Women,children and the elderly in the semi-arid areas of Ethiopia are the mostvulnerable to the impacts of climate variability and change. Hence, most technologiesgenerated for semi-arid environments followed gender-sensitive researchmethodologies. To implement this, EIAR researchers have attended a series oftrainings and workshops on the application of gender analysis, gender-sensitiveand participatory research methodologies in agricultural research. Researchcentres working in semi-arid agro-ecologies have strong linkages with womengroups and have been implementing farmer participatory technology generationand dissemination with women and women groups. Researchable issues relevant towomen farmers were identified, and prioritised for funding. Female-headedhouseholds are intentionally included in farmer participatory technologygeneration, multiplication, promotion and scaling up. All socio-economic studiesof farmers’ circumstances and technology adoption conducted by EIAR haveincluded gender-disaggregated data.
Improvednutrition and increased household income resulted from increased cropproduction and productivity positively affected women in the target region.Women, the elderly and children generally suffer from food shortage and poornutrition than the youth and adult men; and therefore they benefited fromincreased crop productivity and enhanced nutritional quality (like qualityprotein maize, QPM). In communities and population components largely dependentupon cereals as a source of protein (i.e. lower income segments of thepopulation, female-headed households, children and female members of householdswho receive lower priority for protein dense foods such as animal products),introduction and scaling-up of nutritious cereals and pulses will have highimpact on the nutritional status of their diet. Women also do not usually haveequal access to scarce household resources. Thus additional household produceharvested and/or income generated as a result of planting higher-yieldingstress-tolerant varieties or through involvement in community-based seedproduction highly contributed to put more resources into the hands of women.
Therefore,in planning and managing agricultural technology generation, promotion andscaling-up, EIAR scientists are committed to achieving gender-inclusiveresults, and using gender-sensitive indicators, including the collection ofgender-disaggregated data. Efforts are made to increase the sensitivity ofstakeholders on gender issues, gender analysis skills are built in agriculture,and explicitly women are promoted as agents of change. Dissemination andscaling out activities in staple crops will contribute to empowering womenfarmers so that they may achieve greater and more secure production of higherquality and quantity food, thereby improve family health and nutritionalstatus.
Application guidelines for the users
In itseffort to address the drought-prone areas of the country the NARS of Ethiopiahas developed various technological packages proven to be well adapted to aridand semi-arid areas. As indicated above, maize, sorghum and common beanvarieties were generated for the purpose and found to be well adapted to theareas; but were not scaled out for wider farming communities due to lack offinances and limited institutional capacity. Application guidelines for thescaling out of the already identified best-bet technologies are pointed outbelow.
§ Identify and describe best-bettechnological packages suitable for the target areas
§ Create strong institutional linkagesamong all agricultural development partners (government agencies and NGOs)working in the target areas. The partners include farmers, farmer cooperativesand unions, Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development, input supply andmarketing agencies, research institutes, policy makers, traders and processors
§ Conduct stakeholders/partnerssensitisation workshops and share tasks among all
§ Access all necessary inputs such asseeds, fertilisers and others; and distribute to selected host farmers in thetarget areas on time.
§ Plant the scaling out plots and applyall necessary crop, soil and water management practices. Train farmers,extension workers of Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development anddevelopment agents with the utilisation of these technologies and post-harvesthandling of their products
§ Organise field days and exchange visitsso that information reaches more stakeholders and beneficiaries, and enhancesfarmer-to-farmer learning or technology transfer approaches
§ Disseminate information about thetechnologies through extension materials (leaflets, pamphlets and productionguidelines) to stakeholders and beneficiaries. Use mass media to widelybroadcast information about the technologies with respect to its importance,profitability and adaptation.
§ Farmers and other users of thetechnologies should receive training and technical support from researchers andBureau of Agriculture and Rural Development extension workers during andpost-scaling out of technologies in a sustainable manner.
Contact details
Name and contact of the organisation:
EthiopianInstitute of Agricultural Research;
P. O.Box 2003;
AddisAbaba, Ethiopia.
Tel:+251 116462633
Fax:+251 116461251/6461294
Mobile:+251 911 896428
Email: eiar@telecom.et
Name and contact of presenter:
DagneWegary Gissa (PhD);
MekassaAgricultural Research Centre,
P. O.Box 436, Nazareth;
Email: dagnewegary@yahoo.com;
Tel:+251- 221-112186;
Fax:+251 221-114623;
Mobile:+251-912-237300
Names and contact of the scientistsinvolved in the generation of the technology:
SetegnGebeyehu;
MekassaAgricultural Research Centre;
P. O.Box 436;
Nazareth,Ethiopia.
Tel:+251-221-112186
Fax:+251 221-114623
Mobile:+251-911-348487
Email: setegng@yahoo.co.uk
HabtamuAdmassu;
MekassaAgricultural Research Centre;
P. O.Box 436;
Nazareth,Ethiopia.
Tel:+251-221-112186
Fax:+251 221-114623
Mobile:+251-911-919898
Email:habtamu.admassu@gmail.com
TayeTadesse,
MekassaAgricultural Research Centre,
P. O.Box 436,
Nazareth,Ethiopia.
Tel:+251-221-112186
Fax:+251 221-114623
Mobile:+251-911-627721 91
Email: taytad032003@yahoo.com
Glossary
CSA(Central Statistical Agency). 2008. Statistical bulletin for crop productionforecast sample survey. CSA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
CSA(Central Statistical Agency). 2009. Statistical bulletin for crop productionforecast sample survey. CSA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
EIAR (Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research).2007. Guidelines for utilisation of crop technologies. Amharic edition, EIAR,Addis Ababa.