Climate change will havesignificant impacts on agriculture, particularly in East Africa where there issuch variation in topography and climate; and make the challenges of ensuringfood security and reducing poverty even harder. Maize crop yields will decreasebut to an extent that can be handled by breeding and agronomy. However, themaize crop may benefit from climate change in some areas. In nearly 75% of thecountries in Africa, the yield of maize will decrease as a result oftemperature increases and rainfall differences becoming less conducive to maizeproduction (Jones and Thornton 2003) Modelling predictions suggest that cropyield reductions might be as high as 50% to 70% in some areas of East Africa(Thornton et al. 2008). For maize, yields are projected to be reduced for largeareas in northern Uganda and southern Sudan, and for the more semi-arid areasof Kenya and Tanzania (Thornton et al. 2008). At high altitudes, maize yieldsmay increase as temperatures increase, but at most lowerelevations yield changes also depend on water availability, and many placeswill see increasing water stress in the maize growing areas. These effects ofclimate change will happen if farmers continue to plant the same varieties inthe same way in the same areas. Through plant breeding, it is possible todevelop new varieties that can compensate for the projected yield reduction.Such maize varieties should be drought tolerant.

Development of drought tolerant maize

Drought in this region can resultin widespread maize crop failure, affecting the livelihood of millions ofpeople. Between 2003 and 2005 alone, the World Food Programme spent US$1.5billion to meet food deficiencies due to drought and crop failure in Africa(WFP 2006). No exact figures on yield and economic losses in maize due todrought are available but earlier estimates put the annual yield losses due todrought at 24 million tons in the developing world (Edmeades et al. 1992). Theunpredictability of drought, geographically and across seasons, has emphasisedthe importance of drought tolerance as a breeding objective.

In the 1970s CIMMYT started toimprove maize for individual abiotic stresses such as drought, low N, and lowpH, and introduced the concept of managed stress environments. The objective ofmanaged stress environments is not to simulate a farmer’s field but to simulatea stress that is highly relevant in farmers’ fields. In 1996 and 1998 CIMMYTand NARS collaborators introduced the new breeding approach to southern andeastern Africa, through the Southern Africa Drought and Low Soil FertilityProject (SADLF) and the Africa Maize Stress Project (AMS), respectively.Experiments were conducted in the dry season and stress managed throughirrigation, as described in detail by Bänziger et al. (2000). In Eastern AfricaCIMMYT has worked with NARS partners to establish managed drought screeningsites in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania. Other screening sites were establishedin southern African countries. NARS breeders are able to screen their own maizegermplasm for drought tolerance.

Achievements in breeding for drought tolerance

In Africa, several maize varietieswith drought tolerance developed by CIMMYT have been released and are plantedto several thousands of hectares in Eastern and Southern Africa. Thesevarieties were released by NARS partners and seed companies. In Eastern andCentral Africa drought tolerant maize varieties have been released in fourcountries (Table 1.5). The varieties are suitable for both the dry and moist mid-altitudeecologies, ranging from 900 to1800 metres above sea level. In trials comprisingmaize hybrids from the CIMMYT stress breeding approach and a similar number ofhybrids developed using the traditional approaches (83 hybrids, 65randomly-stressed locations across Eastern and Southern Africa, and 3 years ofevaluation), results showed that, under production circumstances most similarto those of resource-poor farmers in Africa (at yield levels of 1–5 t/ha, theCIMMYT varieties yielded 20% more in the most difficult conditions and 10% to15% more in slightly more favourable conditions (Bänziger et al. 2006). CIMMYThas continued to improve maize germplasm for drought tolerance and new hybridsand open pollinated varieties (OPVs) are being developed. Current breedingactivities are funded through the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA)project funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and Howard G. BuffettFoundation.

Table 1.5: Drought tolerant maizevarieties developed by CIMMYT and released by partners in Eastern Africa

A study on the potential impactof investments in drought tolerant maize in Africa over 2007–2016 (La Rovere etal. 2010) at the most likely rates of adoption found that drought tolerantmaize can generate US$0.53 billion from increased maize grain harvests andreduced risk over the study period, assuming conservative yield improvements.Assuming more optimistic yield gains, the economic benefit is nearly US$0.88billion in project countries (which includes Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania andUganda). More than 4 million people could escape poverty and many more improvetheir livelihoods if all current improved varieties were replaced with droughttolerant ones.

Scaling-up approaches

One of the important approachesin the release of these varieties was the use of the ‘Mother-Baby’ Trial Scheme(Snapp 1999) to evaluate the performance and acceptance of new maize varietiesunder farmers’ conditions. A mother-baby trial scheme involves sets ofexperiments grown by researchers, NGO and extension staff and farmers underboth research- and farmer- managed conditions (Banziger and de Meyer 2002). Themother–baby approach involves both farmers and other stakeholders responsiblefor technology transfer. Collaboration with farmers was essential for assessingthe performance and acceptance of the varieties under farmers’ real conditions.Other methods used included on-farm trials, demonstrations, and field days.Drought tolerant maize can be used by farmers in the dry mid-altitude ecologiesof Eastern Africa.

Critical and essential factors for successful promotion andadoption of the technology

Kenya  Agricultural Livestock and Research Organization(KALRO) released six drought tolerant (DT) open-pollinated varieties (OPV) andtwo drought tolerant hybrids (Table 1.6), and has licensed five seed companiesto market some of these varieties. These companies include East African SeedCompany (KDV-1 and KDV-4), Oil Crops Development Company (KDV-1, KDV-3 andKDV-4), Leldet Seed Company (KDV-1 and KDV- 4), Dryland Seed Company (KDV-1,KDV-2, KDV-4, and KDH2) and Freshco Seed Company (KDV-1, KDV-4, and KDV-6).Freshco Seed Company is producing seed of the three DT OPVs with support fromCIMMYT and KALRO. CIMMYT and KALRO are also supporting Dryland Seed Company toproduce seed of a DT hybrid and two DT OPVs. Both Freshco and Dryland SeedCompany will market seed in some of the drier parts of eastern Kenya. Freshco iscarrying out demonstrations and providing starter packs to farmers in easternKenya in conjunction with World Vision and USAID. KALRO seed unit has anextensive system of distribution through the Ministry of Agriculture and NGOnetworks. The areas of interest are usually marginalised areas with inadequaterainfall. Western Seed Company released two DT OPVs and is producing andmarketing the seed mainly in parts of eastern and western Kenya.

Table 1.6: Seed production ofdrought tolerant varieties in Kenya, 2010

¹Estimated quantity of certified seed to be produced is based on areaplanted. Source: KALRO Maize Programme, Freshco, and Dryland Seed Company.

With the support of CIMMYT and KALRO,KDV series varieties were tested on-farm to demonstrate their adaptation toreduced moisture conditions in the target environments of eastern Kenya. TheKDV series in Kenya has featured prominently in demonstrations at agriculturalshows in target environments. In 2009, a demonstration plot was planted at theMachakos Agricultural Society of Kenya show and three demonstrations wereplanted in the Katumani mandate areas of eastern Kenya. In 2010, the KDV seriesvarieties have been planted at Katumani Research Centre Demonstration Farm andat Kiboko Research Centre.

Ethiopia

The Ethiopian Institute ofAgricultural Research (EIAR) released two drought tolerant OPVs (Melkassa 2 andMelkassa 4). Large-scale seed production is carried out by Ethiopian SeedEnterprise (ESE). A new seed company, Oromia Seed Enterprise (OSE), has alsostarted marketing seeds of the DT varieties. Breeder seed production is carriedout by the Melkassa Research Centre maize breeding team to supply both ESE andOSE. In the central Rift Valley region of Ethiopia, community-based seedproduction has been initiated by Melkassa Research Centre to produce seed ofMelkassa 2. Farmers are organised into cooperative societies. Training in seedproduction is carried out by Melkassa Research Centre maize breeding team; theteam provides basic seed to the farmers. Farmers provide land and other inputssuch as fertiliser. An agreement was signed between OSE and the cooperatives topurchase seed.

Melkassa Research Centre, CIMMYT,Ethiopian Seed Enterprise, and World Vision are partners in scaling-up DTvarieties. Demonstrations and field days have been carried out by the MRCextension team at various locations in areas of the Central Rift Valley.Dissemination activities are carried out as a partnership between farmers,agricultural development workers, OSE, NGOs and research extension workers.

Challenges to dissemination, adoption and scaling up

§  Lack ofdeveloped seed companies ready to produce seed in some countries

§  Lack ofirrigation facilities for foundation and certified seed production leading tolack of quality certified seed on the market

§  Problem withfoundation seed production and maintenance of parental material due to lack ofexpertise in seed production and breeders at seed companies

§  Lack of seedstockists/distributors in rural areas where many of the resource poor farmersare based due to poor infrastructure

§  Limitedawareness about drought tolerant maize varieties in most drought prone areas.

Recommendations to address challenges

1)   Investment inirrigation facilities for small seed companies: Most of thesmall seed companies use contract growers who rely on rainfall for seedproduction. This limits seed production in times of unfavourable rainfallpatterns. Irrigation facilities will enable small seed companies to producefoundation and certified seed even in seasons of limited rainfall.

2)   Investment inregional foundation seed unit: Foundation seed production is one of the majorbottlenecks in seed production. A regional foundation seed unit would help byproducing foundation seed for seed companies who do not have the capacity toproduce enough foundation seed. The seed companies will have to pay for theservices.

3)   Increase awareness about the availability of the DTmaize varieties in drought prone areas through demonstrations, field days, and radioprogrammes.

4)   Train and hirebreeders: Trained plant breeders are needed by the small seed companies to helpthem with maintenance of parental material. Often small seed companies do nothave breeders and always go back to the NARS breeders for breeder seed as theycannot maintain the parents of the hybrids.

Name and address of the organisation:

International Maize and WheatImprovement Centre (CIMMYT),

P. O. Box 1041-00621,

Nairobi, Kenya.

Name and address of presenter:

Dan Makumbi, Maize Breeder,

International Maize and WheatImprovement Center (CIMMYT),

P. O. Box 1041-00621,

Nairobi, Kenya

Name and address of key scientists:

W Mwangi, International Maize andWheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT),

P. O. Box 1041-00621,

Nairobi, Kenya

Name and address of key partners:

J Gethi, Kenya AgriculturalResearch Institute,

Katumani Dryland Research Centre,

P. O. Box 340, Machakos, Kenya

Name and address of key partners:

G Bogale, Ethiopian Institute ofAgricultural Institute,

Melkassa Agricultural ResearchCenter,

P. O. Box 436, Nazret, Ethiopia

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Bänziger M and de Meyer J. 2002.Collaborative maize variety development for stress prone environments insouthern Africa. In: p 269–296, Cleveland DA, Soleri D, eds., Farmers,scientists and plant breeding: Integrating knowledge and practice. CABI,Wallingford, UK.

Bänziger M, Edmeades GO, Beck Dand Bellon M. 2000. Breeding for drought and nitrogen stress tolerance inmaize. CIMMYT Special Publication. International Maize and Wheat Center,Mexico, DF, Mexico.

Bänziger M, Setimela PS, Hodson Dand Vivek B. 2006. Breeding for improved drought tolerance in maize adapted tosouthern Africa. Agricultural Water Management 80:212–224.

Edmeades GO, Bolaños J andLafitte HR. 1992. Progress in breeding for drought tolerance in maize. In: p93–111, Wilkinson D, ed, Proceedings of the 47th Annual Corn and SorghumIndustrial Research Conference. ASTA, Washington, DC.

Friesen DK and Palmer AFE (eds.).2004. Integrated approaches to higher maize productivity in the new millennium.Proceedings of the 7th Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Maize Conference,5–11 February 2002. International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center/KenyaAgricultural Research Institute (CIMMYT/KALRO), Nairobi, Kenya.

Jones PG and Thornton PK. 2003.The potential impacts of climate change in tropical agriculture: the case ofmaize in Africa and Latin America in 2055. Global Environmental Change13:51–59.

La Rovere R, Kostandini G,Abdoulaye T, Dixon J, Mwangi W, Guo Z and Banziger M. 2010. Potential impact ofinvestments in drought tolerant maize in Africa. International Maize and WheatImprovement Center (CIMMYT), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

WFP (World Food Programme). 2006.WFP in Africa: Facts, figures and partners. WFP Liaison Office to the AU andECA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.